301: Psychic Trauma
Instructors
Anna Balas, M.D.
Gilda L. Sherwin, M.D.
January 4 – March 15, 2023
Wednesdays, 7:00 – 8:25 pm
No class: 2/1
Co-requisites
Candidates must have or have had at least two cases in supervised psychoanalysis to be eligible for upper level courses.
Course Description
This course explores the meaning of psychic trauma, covering the history and the evolution of the term. The instructors will review and clarify some of the concepts and current controversies surrounding the topic with accompanying clinical examples. Both ego psychological and object relations approaches to trauma will be discussed as well as developmental considerations. Given the rich literature on the subject, the assigned readings represent only a survey of the topic. Our aim is to synthesize the candidates’ knowledge of the field. In addition, the course will focus specifically on severe psychic trauma. We will address technical considerations in the diagnosis and treatment of severely traumatized patients, including how to determine the indications for psychoanalysis or for less intensive treatments. The instructors will present clinical examples and also discuss cases brought by candidates focusing in particular on characteristic transference and countertransference challenges arising in the treatment of severely traumatized patients. The course will address the phenomenology of trangenerational transmission of trauma with clinical focus on transmission of Slavery trauma and transmission of Holocaust trauma. Third and Fourth Year students combined. This course usually alternates with 404 Technique V.
Introduction
In this course we will review definitions of psychic trauma, review the evolution of the psychoanalytic theories of trauma, and address theoretical and clinical approaches in treating severely traumatized patients.
First, will discuss what constitutes a psychic traumatic event, the interrelationship between external and internal processes involved in psychic traumatization; how internal processes, particularly unconscious processes are transformed by traumatic events and how they in turn affect the meaning of traumatic experience for the individual. Next, we will explore the interweaving of the stage and phase of a child’s development with specific traumatic experiences. We will address obstacles and psychic mechanisms involved in the effort to remember trauma, and questions regarding the accuracy of the traumatic memories. This we will connect to the role of reconstruction in the therapeutic process. Later, we will cover the metapsychology of the concept of transmission of trauma and its clinical implications in treating descendants of survivors and perpetrators of massive psychic trauma. We will cover transference and countertransference aspects of working with severely traumatized individuals, focusing on the exploration and working through of the enactments of perpetrator-victim dynamic.
Throughout the course, specific varieties of traumatic events will be discussed with illustrations of clinical examples provided by the instructors. Candidates will also be encouraged to bring clinical examples from their psychoanalytic experience. Cognizant that many facets of the concept of trauma will have been addressed in other courses, we anticipate class discussion to clarify the integration of controversies in the psychiatric and psychoanalytic field of trauma.
Educational Objectives
Upon the completion of the course, participants should be able to:
1. Describe the concept of psychic trauma.
2. Describe the developmental aspects of trauma.
3. Describe transference and counter-transference issues in treatment of severely traumatized individuals.
Evaluation Method
Each student’s participation in class discussion and his or her demonstration of understanding of the course objectives and reading material is assessed in a written evaluation by the instructor(s).
These articles are protected under relevant copyright regulations. They are available in the New York Psychoanalytic Society & Institute Electronic Reserve for your convenience, and for your personal use.
READINGS ARE CONFIRMED.
I. How do we think about Trauma: Current and Historical Controversies within Psychoanalysis
CLASS 1: January 4, 2023
These questions that follow require a close reading of the Ferenczi paper and careful thought. These issues also highlight topics which we will be exploring throughout this course. Therefore please take some time thinking about them.
1. What does Ferenczi mean by confusion of tongues between adult and child? How does this parallel the confusion of tongues between analyst and child?
2. How does Ferenczi suggest the analyst can distinguish between fantasy and reality in patients’ description of seduction?
3. Why does Ferenczi think that passionate love, passionate punishment and the terrorism of suffering make children dependent on the adults who administer them?
4. Based on your experience, what types of patients is Ferenczi discussing in this paper? What do you think are the advantages and the pitfalls of the therapeutic modifications he recommends?
5. How does the metaphor ‘confusion of tongues’ also apply to Freud’s negative reaction to Ferenczi’s paper?
6. Did this paper stimulate you to see new aspects in your work? If so, is there an example which you would be willing to share?
REQUIRED READINGS
Glossary Entry for Trauma. In: Auchincloss, E. and Samberg, E. (2012) Psychoanalytic Terms and Concepts. New Haven: Yale University Press.
Ferenczi, S. (1933). Confusion of Tongues Between Adults and the Child. In: Final Contributions to the Problems & Methods of Psycho-analysis, New York: Basic Books, pp. 155-167.
Breuer, J. and Freud, S. (1893). On The Psychical Mechanism of Hysterical Phenomena. The Standard Edition of the Complete Psychological Works of Sigmund Freud, Volume II (1893-1895): Studies on Hysteria, 1-17
Freud, S. Beyond the Pleasure Principle, SE, Vol. XVIII, 1920, pp. 12-14, 17, 18-23, 27-33, 44. (optional: entire essay, pp. 1-64)
SUPPLEMENTAL READINGS
Blum, H.P. (1994). The Confusion of Tongues and Psychic Trauma. Int. J. Psycho-Anal., 75:871-882.
Fenichel, O. (1945). The Concept of Trauma in Contemporary Psycho-Analytical Theory. Int. J. Psycho-Anal., 26:33-44.
Freud, S. (1896). The Aetiology of Hysteria. The Standard Edition of the Complete Psychological Works of Sigmund Freud, Volume III (1893-1899): Early Psycho-Analytic Publications, 187-221.
Gottlieb, R.M. (2003). Psychosomatic Medicine: The Divergent Legacies of Freud and Janet. J. Amer. Psychoanal. Assn., 51(3):857-881.
van Haute, P., & Geyskens, T. (2004). Confusion of tongues: The primacy of sexuality in Freud, Ferenczi, and Laplanche. New York: Other Press.
II. Traumatic Events and their Impact on Psychic Functioning in Adults: Psychoanalytic Perspective on Trauma
CLASS 2: January 11, 2023
REQUIRED READINGS
Lemma, A., and Levy, S. (2004) The Impact of Trauma on the Psyche: Internal and External Processes. (Chapter 1) in The Perversion of Loss: Psychoanalytic Perspective on Trauma, eds. Levy, S. and Lemma, A. (Series Editors: Fonagy, P and Target, M), Brunner-Routledge, 2004, pp. 1-20
SUPPLEMENTAL READINGS
Bohleber, Warner. (2010). Destructiveness, Intersubjectivity, and Trauma: The Identity Crisis of Modern Psychoanalysis (Developments in Psychoanalysis Series), London: Karnac Books Ltd.
Garland, C. (1998). Thinking About Trauma. In Understanding Trauma: A Psychoanalytical Approach (pp. 9-31). Routledge.
Krystal, H. (2008). Resilience: Accommodation and Recovery. In Henri Parens, Harold Blum and Salman Akhtar (Eds.), The Unbroken Soul: Tragedy, Trauma and Resilience (pp. 47-64), Jason Aronson.
III. Developmental Considerations
CLASS 3: January 18, 2023
REQUIRED READINGS
Baudry, F. Greenacre’s Predisposition to Anxiety, Part II. A review presented at the NYPSI in 2010
Freud, A. (1967) Comments on Trauma, in Psychic Trauma, ed. Furst, S., pp. 235-246, IUP, NY
Freud, S. (1926). Inhibitions, Symptoms and Anxiety. The Standard Edition of the Complete Psychological Works of Sigmund Freud, Volume XX (1925-1926): An Autobiographical Study, Inhibitions, Symptoms and Anxiety, The Question of Lay Analysis and Other Works, 75-176. [pages to be assigned]
SUPPLEMENTAL READINGS
Ferenczi, S. (1952). Stages of Development of in the Sense of Reality. In: First Contributions to Psycho-Analysis (pp. 213-239), Karnac Books.
IV. Developmental Considerations continued: The Impact of Trauma in Childhood
CLASS 4: January 25, 2023
REQUIRED READINGS
Fonagy, P. and Target, M. (2003). Evolution of the Interpersonal Interpretive Function: Clues for Effective Preventive Intervention in Early Childhood. In Coates, S. et. al. (Eds.), September 11: Trauma and Human Bonds (pp. 99-113), Hillsdale, NY: Analytic Press.
Shengold, L. (1989). Soul Murder: The Effects of Childhood Abuse and Deprivation. New Haven, CT: Yale Univ. Press. (Chapter 4 pp. 41- 68)
SUPPLEMENTAL READINGS
Brandt, S. Rudden, M. (2020). A Psychoanalytic Perspective on Victims of Domestic Violence and Coercive Control. Int. J. Appl. Psychoanal. Stud., 17(3):215-231.
Fonagy, P. (1993) Psychoanalytic and Empirical Approaches to Developmental Psychopathology: An Object relations Perspective. Journal of the American Psychoanalytic Association, 41 Supplement: 245-260
Fonagy, P., Steele, M., Moran, G., Steele, H, Higgitt, A. (1993). Measuring the ghost in the nursery: An empirical study of the relation between parents’ mental representations of childhood experiences and their infants’ security of attachment. Journal of American Psychoanalytic Association, 41: 957-989.
Shengold, L. (1989). Soul Murder: The Effects of Childhood Abuse and Deprivation. New Haven, CT: Yale Univ. Press.
V. Working with Severely Traumatized Patients: Refugees, Survivors of Torture, War, Persecution, Forced Migration
CLASS 5: February 8, 2023
REQUIRED READINGS
Akhtar, S. (2014). Psychoanalytic Treatment of Trauma and the Analyst’s Personality. Psychoanal. Inq., 34(3):204-213.
SUPPLEMENTAL READINGS
Freud, S. (1921). Group Psychology and the Analysis of the Ego. The Standard Edition of the Complete Psychological Works of Sigmund Freud, Volume XVIII (1920-1922): Beyond the Pleasure Principle, Group Psychology and Other Works, 65-144.
Freud, S. (1933). Why War?. The Standard Edition of the Complete Psychological Works of Sigmund Freud, Volume XXII (1932-1936): New Introductory Lectures on Psycho-Analysis and Other Works, 195-216.
Viñar, M.N. (2005). The specificity of torture as trauma: The human wilderness when words fail. Int. J. Psycho-Anal., 86(2):311-333.
VI. Repression and Dissociation
CLASS 6: February 15, 2023
REQUIRED READINGS
Arlow, J. (1966) Depersonalization and Derealization, pp. 456-478, in Psychoanalysis a General Psychology, Essays in Honor of Heinz Hartmann, ed. Loewenstein et. al. Read Case 1 (pp. 460-462); Case 3 (pp. 463-465); Case 4 (pp. 465-467); Case 5 (pp. 467-469); and, Discussion (pp. 470-479)
Gottlieb, R.M. (1997). Does The Mind Fall Apart In Multiple Personality Disorder? Some Proposals Based On A Psychoanalytic Case. J. Amer. Psychoanal. Assn., 45:907-932.
Freud, S. Splitting of the Ego in the Process of Defence, SE, XXIII, pp. 271-278.
SUPPLEMENTAL READINGS
Brenner, I. (2009) A New View from the Acropolis: Dissociative Identity Disorder, The Psychoanalytic Quarterly, Vol: LXXVIII, No. 1, pp. 57-105
Freud, S. (1919) The ‘Uncanny.’ Standard Edition Vol. 17, pp. 234-250
Freud, S. (1936) A disturbance of memory on the acropolis. Standard Edition., Vol 22, pp. 237-248
VII. Repetition, Reenactment and Reconstruction of Trauma
CLASS 7: February 22, 2023
REQUIRED READINGS
Blum, H. (1986) The Concept of Reconstruction of Trauma. In The Reconstruction of Trauma: Its Significance in Clinical Work. Ed. Rothstein, A., Madison, CT: IUP, pp. 7-27
Blum, H., (1983), The Psychoanalytic Process and Analytic Inference: A Clinical Study of a Lie and Loss, International Journal of Psychoanalysis, 64: 17-33
SUPPLEMENTAL READINGS
Freud, S. (1914) Remembering, Repeating and Working-Through. Standard Edition, Vol. 12, pp. 145-156
Person, E., and Klar, H. (1994) Establishing Trauma: The Difficulty Distinguishing Between Memories and Fantasies, JAPA Vol. 42, No. 4 pp. 1055-1081
Yovell, Y. (2000) From Hysteria to Postraumatic Stress Disorder: Psychoanalysis and the Neurobiology of Traumatic Memories, Neuro-Psychoanalysis, 2: pp. 171-181.
VIII. Transmission of Trauma: Psychoanalytic Treatment of Descendants of Survivors of Massive Psychic Trauma
CLASS 8: March 1, 2023
REQUIRED READINGS
Kogan, I. (2002) “Enactment” in the lives and treatment of Holocaust survivors’ offsprings. The Psychoanalytic Quarterly, 71: pp. 251-272.
Laub, D. and Auerhahn, N. (1993). Knowing and not knowing massive psychic trauma: forms of traumatic memory. Int. J. Psychoanal., 74:287-302
SUPPLEMENTAL READINGS
Grubrich-Simitis, I. (2010) Reality Testing in Place of Interpretation: A Phase in Psychoanalytic Work with Descendants of Holocaust Survivors. The Psychoanalytic Quarterly, Vol. LXXIX, No. 1, pp. 37-69.
Grubrich-Simitis, I. (1984) From concretism to metaphor: thoughts on some theoretical and technical aspects of the psychoanalytic work with children of Holocaust survivors. Psychoanalytic Study of the Child, 39: 301-319
IX. Transmission of Trauma: Transmission of Slavery’s Trauma
CLASS 9: March 8, 2023
REQUIRED READINGS
Altman, N. (2000). Black and White Thinking: A Psychoanalyst Reconsiders Race. Psychoanalytic Dialogues, 10:589-605.
Gump, J. P. (2000). A White Therapist, an African American Patient—Shame in the Therapeutic Dyad: Commentary on Paper by Neil Altman. Psychoanalytic Dialogues, 10:619-632.
Morrison, T. Beloved: A Novel. New York: Knopf, 1987. (Students to purchase book.)
SUPPLEMENTAL READINGS
Gump, J. (2014). Discovery and Repair: Discussion of the Article by Lynne Jacobs. Psychoanal. Inq., 34(7):759-765.
Jacobs, L. (2014). Circumstance of Birth: Life on the Color Line. Psychoanal. Inq., 34(7):746-758.
SUPPLEMENTAL READINGS
Gump, J. (2017). The presence of the past: Transmission of slavery’s traumas, Chapter 9, in Demons in the Consulting Room: Echoes of genocide, slavery and extreme trauma in psychoanalytic practice, ed. A. Harris, M. Kalb, S. Klebanoff, Routledge
Gump, J. (2017). The Endurance of Slavery’s Traumas and ‘Truths’ Chapter 5 in
Trans-generational Trauma and the Other: Dialogues Across History and Difference
ed. S. Grand and J. Salberg, Routledge
X. Trauma in the Transference-Countertransference: Theoretical Pluralism and the Working Clinician
CLASS 10: March 15, 2023
REQUIRED READINGS
Balas, A. Book Review: Psychic Reality in Context: Perspectives on Psychoanalysis, Personal History, and Trauma. J Am Psychoanal Assoc 2014 62: 924
Davies, J.M. and Frawley, M.G. (1992) Dissociative Processes and Transference-Countertransference Paradigms in the Psychoanalytically oriented Treatment of Adult Survivors of Childhood Sexual Abuse., Psychoanal. Dialogues 2: (1) pp. 5-36.
Holmes, D.E. (1992). Race and Transference in Psychoanalysis and Psychotherapy. Int. J. Psycho-Anal., 73:1-11.
Shengold, L. (1999) “Soul Murder Revisited: Thoughts About Therapy, Hate, Love, and Memory.” Appendix: A Discussion of “Dissociative Processes and Transference/Countertransference Paradigms in the Psychoanalytically Oriented Treatment of Adult Survivors of Childhood Sexual Abuse,” by Jody Messler Davies and Mary Gail Frawley. pp. 287-301. (This is an extended and revised version of an article published in Psychoanalytic Dialogues 2:49-59 (1992).
SUPPLEMENTAL READINGS
Almond, R. (2015). Meditations on Psychological Repair: Commentary on Gobodo-Madikizela. J. Amer. Psychoanal. Assn., 63(6):1125-1133.
Anthony, E. and Cohler, B. Eds. (1987). The Invulnerable Child. The Guilford Press, London and New York
Arlow, J. (1987). Trauma, Play, and Perversion. Psychoanalytic Study of the Child 42: 31-44
Arlow, J. (1996). The Concept of Psychic Reality—How Useful? International Journal of Psycho-Analysis 77: 659-666
Balas, A. (2000) Children Surviving Persecution: in International Study of Healing and Trauma: Judith Kestenberg and Charlotte Kahn, Westport, Ct. and London: Praeger., 1998, Book Review, IJP, 81:1235-1238
Balas, A. and Guttman, A. (2003). The Impact of 9/11 Through the Lens of the Child Psychoanalyst: A Study with Psychoanalytic Reflections. Psychoanalysis and Psychotherapy Vol 20 No. 2. International Universities Press, Inc., Madison, CT.
Bergmann, M. and Jucovy, M., editors (1982) Generations of the Holocaust, Basic Books
Bettleheim, Bruno. (1943) Individual and Mass Behavior in Extreme Situations, Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, Vol.38, No.4, October, 417-452
Blum, H. (1983). Splitting of the Ego And Its Relation To Parent Loss. Journal of the American Psychoanalytic Association 31S: 301-324
Blum, H. (1987). The Role of Identification in the Resolution of Trauma: The Anna Freud Memorial Lecture. Psychoanalytic Quarterly 56: 609-627
Blum, H. (1996). Seduction Trauma: Representation, Deferred Action, And Pathogenic Development. Journal of the American Psychoanalytic Association 44: 1147-1164
Blum, H. (2003). Repression, transference and reconstruction. International Journal of Psycho-Analysis, 84: (3) 497-503, Psychoanalytic Controversies
Blum, H (2004). Separation-Individuation Theory and Attachment Theory. Journal of the American Psychoanalytic Association, 52: (2) 535-553
Boesky, D. (2008). Psychoanalytic disagreements in context. New York: Jason Aronson
Bollas, C. (1987). The Shadow of the Object: Psychoanalysis of the Unthought Known. Free Association Books, London
Brenner, I. (2001) Dissociation of Trauma: Theory, Phenomenology, and Technique. International Universities Press, Inc.
Bromberg, P. (1998). Standing in the Spaces: Essys on Clinical Process, Trauma & Dissociation. The Analytic Press, NJ and London
Bromberg, P. (2006) Something Wicked This Way Comes: Trauma, Dissociation and Conflict” in Awakening the Dreamer: Clinical Journeys., The Analytic Press, NY
Caruth, Cathy. (1996) Unclaimed Experience: Trauma, Narrative, and History. John Hopkins University Press
Coates, S. Introduction: September 11, Trauma and Human Bonds (2003) The Analytic Press, pp. 1-14
Cohen, J. (1985) Trauma and Repression, Psychoanalytic Inquiry, 14, pp. 163-189
Cohen, J. (1980). Structural Consequences of Psychic Trauma: A New Look at “Beyond the Pleasure Principle.” IJP61: 421-32
Des Pres, Terrence. (1976) The Survivor: An Anatomy of Life in the Death Camps. Oxford University Press
Faimberg, Haydee. (1988) The Telescoping of Generations: Genealogy of Certain Identifications, Contemporary Psychoanalysis 24:99-117
Felman, S. and Laub, D. (1992) Testimony: Crises of Witnessing in Literature, Psychoanalysis and History, Routledge, New York and London
Fraiberg, S. et. al. (1975) Ghosts in the Nursery. J Am Acad Child Psychiatry. 14(3):387-421.
Freud, A. & Dann, S. (1951) An Experiment in Group Upbringing. The Psychoanalytic Study of the Child, 6: 127-168
Freud, A. & Burlingham, D. (1943) War and Children, New York: Greenwood Press Reprint
Freud, S. (1939 (1934-38)), Moses and Monotheism. Standard Edition. Vol. 23
Furst, S. Ed. (1967). Psychic Trauma. Basic Books, Inc. New York and London
Gobodo-Madikizela, P. (2015). Psychological Repair: The Intersubjective Dialogue of Remorse and Forgiveness in the Aftermath of Gross Human Rights Violations. Journal of the American Psychoanalytic Association, 63(6):1085-1123.
Good, Michael I. (2006) The Seduction Theory In Its Second Century: Trauma, Fantasy and Reality Today. International Universities Press, Inc. Madison, CT
Gottlieb, R.M. (2015). Introduction: Toward a Psychoanalytic Psychology of Repair after Gross Human Rights Abuses. J. Amer. Psychoanal. Assn., 63(6):1081-1083.
Grand, Sue. (2000) The Reproduction of Evil: A Clinical and Cultural Perspective. The Analytic Press
Greenacre, P. (1952). Trauma, Growth and Personality. International Universities Press Inc., New York
Hauser, S. Allen, J. and Golden, E. (2008) Out of the Woods: Tales of Resilient Teens, IJP 89: 204-209
Howell, E.F. (2014). Ferenczi’s Concept of Identification with the Aggressor: Understanding Dissociative Structure with Interacting Victim and Abuser Self-States. American Journal of Psychoanalysis, 74(1):48-59
JAPA: Trauma and Severe Psychopathology. Spring 2003
Kestenberg, J. and Kahn, Ch. (1998) Children Surviving Persecution: An International Study of Trauma and Healing. Praeger
Knafo, D. Ed. (2004). Living with Terror, Working with Trauma: A Clinician’s Handbook. Jason Aronson, Oxford
Kogan, I. (2004). The Role of the Analyst in the Analytic Cure During Times of Chronic Crises. J. Amer. Psychoanal. Assn., 52(3):735-757.
Kogan, Ilany. (2007). The Struggle Against Mourning, Aronson
Krystal, H. and Niederland, W. (1971). Psychic Traumatization: After effects in Individuals and Communities. London: Little, Brown & Co.
Lanius, R.A., Vermetten, E. & Pain, C. (2010). The impact of early life trauma on health and disease: The hidden epidemic. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Levy, S. & Lemma, A.(2004). The perversion of loss: Psychoanalytic perspectives of loss. New York: Routledge
Loftus, E. and Ketcham, K. (1994). The Myth of Repressed Memory: False Memories and Allegations of Sexual Abuse. New York: St. Martin’s Griffin.
Moskovitz, S. (1983) Love Despite Hate Schocken Books, New York
Neugebauer, R. (2015). Between the Idea and the Reality … Falls the Shadow: Commentary on Gobodo-Madikizela. J. Amer. Psychoanal. Assn., 63(6):1135-1139.
Parens, H., Blum, H., and Akhtar, S. Eds. (2008). The Unbroken Soul: Tragedy, Trauma and Resilience. Jason Aronson, New York
Pynoos and Eth (1985) PTSD in Children: American Psychiatric Press, Washington, D.C. Rothstein, A., editor. (1986) The Reconstruction of Trauma: Its Significance in Clinical Work, IUP
Shay, J. (1994) Achilles in Vietnam: Combat Trauma and the undoing of Character, Scribner Press, NY
Shay, J. (2002) Odysseus in America: Combat Trauma and the Trials of Homecoming
Simon, B. (2015). How Law, Remorse, and Forgiveness Contribute to Psychological Repair: Commentary on Gobodo-Madikizela. J. Amer. Psychoanal. Assn., 63(6):1141-1145.
Solms, M. (2015). Psychoanalysis in Pursuit of Truth and Reconciliation on a South African Farm: Commentary on Gobodo-Madikizela. J. Amer. Psychoanal. Assn., 63(6):1147-1158.
Spitz, R. (1945). Hospitalism—An Inquiry Into the Genesis of Psychiatric Conditions in Early Childhood. Psychoanalytic Study of the Child 1: 53-74
Spitz, R. (1946). Hospitalism—A Follow-Up Report on Investigation Described in Volume I, 1945. Psychoanalytic Study of the Child 2: 113-117
Summers, F. (2015). What is Psychoanalysis Doing in the World of Social Justice? Commentary on Gobodo-Madikizela. J. Amer. Psychoanal. Assn., 63(6):1159-1168.
Terr, L. (1987) Childhood Trauma and the Creative Product—A Look at the Early Lives and Later Works of Poe, Wharton, Magritte, Hitchcock, and Bergman. Psychoanalytic Study of the Child 42: 545-572
Terr. L. (1979). Children of Chowchilla—A Study of Psychic Trauma. Psychoanalytic Study of the Child 34: 547-623
Terr, L. (1990). Too Scared to Cry. New York: Harper and Row
Van der Kolk, B.A., McFarlane, A.C., Weisaeth, L. (1996) Traumatic Stress: The Effects of Overwhelming Experience on Mind, Body, and Society. New York: Guilford
Wardi, D. (1992). Memorial Candles: Children of the Holocaust, New York: Routledge
Friedlander, Saul. (1999) When Memory Comes. Farrar, Strauss and Giroux
Rothstein, A. editor. (1986) The Reconstruction of Trauma: Its Significance in Clinical Work, IUP.